Guide

8 National Register Sites of Civilian Public Service-Led Disability Activism

During World War II and its aftermath, 45 mental hospitals in the country served as sites for Civilian Public Service camps. Conscientious Objectors (COs) served as ward attendants and occasionally performed other needs at the sites. CPS camps were established through agreements with the federal government and three historic "peace churches:" the American Friends Service Committee, Brethren Service Committee, and Mennonite Central Committee.

Shocked by the mistreatment and abuse they saw their new patients face, many of these young men and their wives used methods like undercover photography and organizing to document the discrimination. The COs experiences and their abilities to create communities within the camps depended on the support or opposition they faced from permanent hospital employees and the state government.

While 20 of the CPS camps are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, this guide highlight eight CPS camps where disability history was made. The hospitals listed in this article are referred to by their historic names. The current names of the sites are indicated in parentheses. Many of these names include terms that are incorrect and harmful when discussing people with disabilities today

  1. A brick building in the Federal style with four columns holding up a triangular roofline at the entryway. The photo is at an angle and there is a pole in the forground.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane

    A total of 85 men served in the CPS camp at Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane in Middletown (now Connecticut Valley Hospital) from March 1943 to September 1946. They worked as ward attendants, providing custodial care. Alex Sareyan, who later wrote The "Turning Point: How Persons of Conscience Brought About Major Change in the Care of America’s Mentally Ill," served as the assistant director of the CPS unit. He began a public relations unit for the hospital that met local newspapers. Staff shortages before the COs meant patients received less therapy and no regular exercise outside of the hospital. The CPS camp meant many patients could resume helping with work like cleaning.

  2. A black and white photograph of a colonial style  two story building. The photograph is taken from a walk way so there are hedges and a large tree in front of the building.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Warfield Complex, Hubner Building, T Building

    From August 1942 to July 1946, a total of 119 COs worked at CPS camp 47, at the Warfield Complex, Hubner Building, T Building (now Springfield State Hospital) in Sykesville, Maryland. COs here served in a variety of roles, and a large number of COs meant that the hospital could afford to provide training in psychiatric treatments. Ward attendants at Springfield served as housekeepers, aided in feeding, bathing, and dressing patients, and provided dressings, electric shock therapy, and injection-based treatment.

  3. Close up view of two stone buildings with some earthworks in front. The image is black and white and darker so details are obscured but one building is slighlty shorter than the other.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane

    CPS camp, at the New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane (now Greystone Park State Hospital) 77 had 179 workers from January 1943 to August 1946. The Community Service Committee provided opportunities to help the hospital and surrounding community. The COs reestablished a library and built games and puzzles for patients. They donated blood, led a boys’ club at a local settlement house, made Christmas baskets for needy families, and led programs in churches. One of the COs at Greystone Park was Frank L. Wright, Jr., who wrote "Out of Sight, Out of Mind." While CO Clayton Bowman remembered some violent patients, he discussed in an oral history how many patients would help the CPS camp workers care for other, less physically capable ones.

  4. A black and white photograph of a brick building with a tower like structure on one end and a entryway leading into a circular space. There is a large tree on the right.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum

    From December 1942 to June 1946, fifty-six COs worked at the CPS camp at what was then Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum (now Columbus State Hospital). In addition to serving as attendants, the hospital had a unit of COs who volunteered as human guinea pigs in experiments related to starvation and illness. The COs in this unit were also part of the CPS union first started in 1944 by Quaker COs. The union fought for improvements in pay, working conditions, and rights.

  5. View of a Federal style brick building in a black and white photograph. The entry way hsa stacked colonades and a series of chimnies loom over the top of the structure.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital

    A total of 69 men worked at CPS camp, 93 at the Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital (now Harrisburg State Hospital) from April 1943 to April 1946. The COs and some of their wives worked as ward attendants at the site. From 1944 – 1945 the position also included clerical work. Men participated in a Christian worker’s school with two courses: "The Life and Teachings of Jesus" and "The Work of the Church." Unlike other camps, men at CPS camp 93 were able to live in single or double rooms in the hospital, as opposed to barracks or outside housing.

  6. A far view of a stone like structure with a round tower like building on the left side of the image. The image was taken across an expanse of ground.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Utah State Hospital

    From March 1943 to April 1946 a CPS camp operated at the Utah State Hospital in Provo, Utah. 38 total COs worked at the camp over the course of its existence, performing a variety of jobs to make up for staffing shortages. Like other camps, the COs developed a religious community: they met weekly for Sunday school lessons, sang in choirs, and taught a summer Bible school. Some men also earned course credit at Brigham Young University.

  7. Black and white image of a Federal style structure in Virginia. The front has four large columns leading into arched windows and entryways.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Western State Hospital Complex

    CPS camp 44, at what is now the Western State Hospital in Staunton, Virginia, had 110 workers from August 1942 to September 1946. The COs worked 76 hours per week, sleeping in the wards, eating low quality food, and combating rat infestation. Initially, patients disliked the COs, calling them “slackers” and “yellow-bellies.” Much of the anger, though, came from the mistreatment they faced from the normal attendants. The COs documented evidence of poor patient care and working conditions, sparking a community protest in 1943 that led to the superintendent’s resignation. Morale improved after changes to working hours and conditions. COs appointed a camp historian, held softball games, and organized lectures on many subjects.

  8. Wide angle view of a long three story brick building. In the forground is a circular driveway with low groundcover plants and a flagpole.

    Photo By: Naional Register of Historic Places

    Fort Steilacoom

    From September 1942 to October 1945 Thirty-six COs worked at Ft. Steilacoom (now the Western State Hospital) CPS camp. Fifteen of them had previously worked at a CPS camp in Cascade Locks, Oregon. In addition to making a camp newsletter, the COs created the Pacifist Information Center, which hoped to better familiarize the public with the pacifist movement. They developed a library full of pacifist literature. While other COs struggled with poor living conditions and a lack of state support, the governor of Washington was fully supportive of the development of CPS camps in state facilities.

Emma Gruesbeck is an anthropologist and historic preservationist based in Maryland. This article was previously researched and published as an article for the National Park Service. For more information about COs’ disability activism and the hospitals that had CPS camps, visit Conscientious Objectors and Mental Health Reform or Mental Hospital Civilian Public Service Camps and the National Register of Historic Places.

8 National Register Sites of Civilian Public Service-Led Disability Activism

8 Places
  1. 1
    A brick building in the Federal style with four columns holding up a triangular roofline at the entryway. The photo is at an angle and there is a pole in the forground.
    A brick building in the Federal style with four columns holding up a triangular roofline at the entryway. The photo is at an angle and there is a pole in the forground.

    Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane

    A total of 85 men served in the CPS camp at Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane in Middletown (now Connecticut Valley Hospital) from March 1943 to September 1946. They worked as ward attendants, providing custodial care. Alex Sareyan, who later wrote The "Turning Point: How Persons of Conscience Brought About Major Change in the Care of America’s Mentally Ill," served as the assistant director of the CPS unit. He began a public relations unit for the hospital that met local newspapers. Staff shortages before the COs meant patients received less therapy and no regular exercise outside of the hospital. The CPS camp meant many patients could resume helping with work like cleaning.
  2. 2
    A black and white photograph of a colonial style  two story building. The photograph is taken from a walk way so there are hedges and a large tree in front of the building.
    A black and white photograph of a colonial style  two story building. The photograph is taken from a walk way so there are hedges and a large tree in front of the building.

    Warfield Complex, Hubner Building, T Building

    From August 1942 to July 1946, a total of 119 COs worked at CPS camp 47, at the Warfield Complex, Hubner Building, T Building (now Springfield State Hospital) in Sykesville, Maryland. COs here served in a variety of roles, and a large number of COs meant that the hospital could afford to provide training in psychiatric treatments. Ward attendants at Springfield served as housekeepers, aided in feeding, bathing, and dressing patients, and provided dressings, electric shock therapy, and injection-based treatment.
  3. 3
    Close up view of two stone buildings with some earthworks in front. The image is black and white and darker so details are obscured but one building is slighlty shorter than the other.
    Close up view of two stone buildings with some earthworks in front. The image is black and white and darker so details are obscured but one building is slighlty shorter than the other.

    New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane

    CPS camp, at the New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane (now Greystone Park State Hospital) 77 had 179 workers from January 1943 to August 1946. The Community Service Committee provided opportunities to help the hospital and surrounding community. The COs reestablished a library and built games and puzzles for patients. They donated blood, led a boys’ club at a local settlement house, made Christmas baskets for needy families, and led programs in churches. One of the COs at Greystone Park was Frank L. Wright, Jr., who wrote "Out of Sight, Out of Mind." While CO Clayton Bowman remembered some violent patients, he discussed in an oral history how many patients would help the CPS camp workers care for other, less physically capable ones.
  4. 4
    A black and white photograph of a brick building with a tower like structure on one end and a entryway leading into a circular space. There is a large tree on the right.
    A black and white photograph of a brick building with a tower like structure on one end and a entryway leading into a circular space. There is a large tree on the right.

    Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum

    From December 1942 to June 1946, fifty-six COs worked at the CPS camp at what was then Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum (now Columbus State Hospital). In addition to serving as attendants, the hospital had a unit of COs who volunteered as human guinea pigs in experiments related to starvation and illness. The COs in this unit were also part of the CPS union first started in 1944 by Quaker COs. The union fought for improvements in pay, working conditions, and rights.
  5. 5
    View of a Federal style brick building in a black and white photograph. The entry way hsa stacked colonades and a series of chimnies loom over the top of the structure.
    View of a Federal style brick building in a black and white photograph. The entry way hsa stacked colonades and a series of chimnies loom over the top of the structure.

    Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital

    A total of 69 men worked at CPS camp, 93 at the Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital (now Harrisburg State Hospital) from April 1943 to April 1946. The COs and some of their wives worked as ward attendants at the site. From 1944 – 1945 the position also included clerical work. Men participated in a Christian worker’s school with two courses: "The Life and Teachings of Jesus" and "The Work of the Church." Unlike other camps, men at CPS camp 93 were able to live in single or double rooms in the hospital, as opposed to barracks or outside housing.
  6. 6
    A far view of a stone like structure with a round tower like building on the left side of the image. The image was taken across an expanse of ground.
    A far view of a stone like structure with a round tower like building on the left side of the image. The image was taken across an expanse of ground.

    Utah State Hospital

    From March 1943 to April 1946 a CPS camp operated at the Utah State Hospital in Provo, Utah. 38 total COs worked at the camp over the course of its existence, performing a variety of jobs to make up for staffing shortages. Like other camps, the COs developed a religious community: they met weekly for Sunday school lessons, sang in choirs, and taught a summer Bible school. Some men also earned course credit at Brigham Young University.
  7. 7
    Black and white image of a Federal style structure in Virginia. The front has four large columns leading into arched windows and entryways.
    Black and white image of a Federal style structure in Virginia. The front has four large columns leading into arched windows and entryways.

    Western State Hospital Complex

    CPS camp 44, at what is now the Western State Hospital in Staunton, Virginia, had 110 workers from August 1942 to September 1946. The COs worked 76 hours per week, sleeping in the wards, eating low quality food, and combating rat infestation. Initially, patients disliked the COs, calling them “slackers” and “yellow-bellies.” Much of the anger, though, came from the mistreatment they faced from the normal attendants. The COs documented evidence of poor patient care and working conditions, sparking a community protest in 1943 that led to the superintendent’s resignation. Morale improved after changes to working hours and conditions. COs appointed a camp historian, held softball games, and organized lectures on many subjects.
  8. 8
    Wide angle view of a long three story brick building. In the forground is a circular driveway with low groundcover plants and a flagpole.
    Wide angle view of a long three story brick building. In the forground is a circular driveway with low groundcover plants and a flagpole.

    Fort Steilacoom

    From September 1942 to October 1945 Thirty-six COs worked at Ft. Steilacoom (now the Western State Hospital) CPS camp. Fifteen of them had previously worked at a CPS camp in Cascade Locks, Oregon. In addition to making a camp newsletter, the COs created the Pacifist Information Center, which hoped to better familiarize the public with the pacifist movement. They developed a library full of pacifist literature. While other COs struggled with poor living conditions and a lack of state support, the governor of Washington was fully supportive of the development of CPS camps in state facilities.
  1. 1
    A brick building in the Federal style with four columns holding up a triangular roofline at the entryway. The photo is at an angle and there is a pole in the forground.
    A brick building in the Federal style with four columns holding up a triangular roofline at the entryway. The photo is at an angle and there is a pole in the forground.

    Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane

    A total of 85 men served in the CPS camp at Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane in Middletown (now Connecticut Valley Hospital) from March 1943 to September 1946. They worked as ward attendants, providing custodial care. Alex Sareyan, who later wrote The "Turning Point: How Persons of Conscience Brought About Major Change in the Care of America’s Mentally Ill," served as the assistant director of the CPS unit. He began a public relations unit for the hospital that met local newspapers. Staff shortages before the COs meant patients received less therapy and no regular exercise outside of the hospital. The CPS camp meant many patients could resume helping with work like cleaning.
  2. 2
    A black and white photograph of a colonial style  two story building. The photograph is taken from a walk way so there are hedges and a large tree in front of the building.
    A black and white photograph of a colonial style  two story building. The photograph is taken from a walk way so there are hedges and a large tree in front of the building.

    Warfield Complex, Hubner Building, T Building

    From August 1942 to July 1946, a total of 119 COs worked at CPS camp 47, at the Warfield Complex, Hubner Building, T Building (now Springfield State Hospital) in Sykesville, Maryland. COs here served in a variety of roles, and a large number of COs meant that the hospital could afford to provide training in psychiatric treatments. Ward attendants at Springfield served as housekeepers, aided in feeding, bathing, and dressing patients, and provided dressings, electric shock therapy, and injection-based treatment.
  3. 3
    Close up view of two stone buildings with some earthworks in front. The image is black and white and darker so details are obscured but one building is slighlty shorter than the other.
    Close up view of two stone buildings with some earthworks in front. The image is black and white and darker so details are obscured but one building is slighlty shorter than the other.

    New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane

    CPS camp, at the New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane (now Greystone Park State Hospital) 77 had 179 workers from January 1943 to August 1946. The Community Service Committee provided opportunities to help the hospital and surrounding community. The COs reestablished a library and built games and puzzles for patients. They donated blood, led a boys’ club at a local settlement house, made Christmas baskets for needy families, and led programs in churches. One of the COs at Greystone Park was Frank L. Wright, Jr., who wrote "Out of Sight, Out of Mind." While CO Clayton Bowman remembered some violent patients, he discussed in an oral history how many patients would help the CPS camp workers care for other, less physically capable ones.
  4. 4
    A black and white photograph of a brick building with a tower like structure on one end and a entryway leading into a circular space. There is a large tree on the right.
    A black and white photograph of a brick building with a tower like structure on one end and a entryway leading into a circular space. There is a large tree on the right.

    Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum

    From December 1942 to June 1946, fifty-six COs worked at the CPS camp at what was then Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum (now Columbus State Hospital). In addition to serving as attendants, the hospital had a unit of COs who volunteered as human guinea pigs in experiments related to starvation and illness. The COs in this unit were also part of the CPS union first started in 1944 by Quaker COs. The union fought for improvements in pay, working conditions, and rights.
  5. 5
    View of a Federal style brick building in a black and white photograph. The entry way hsa stacked colonades and a series of chimnies loom over the top of the structure.
    View of a Federal style brick building in a black and white photograph. The entry way hsa stacked colonades and a series of chimnies loom over the top of the structure.

    Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital

    A total of 69 men worked at CPS camp, 93 at the Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital (now Harrisburg State Hospital) from April 1943 to April 1946. The COs and some of their wives worked as ward attendants at the site. From 1944 – 1945 the position also included clerical work. Men participated in a Christian worker’s school with two courses: "The Life and Teachings of Jesus" and "The Work of the Church." Unlike other camps, men at CPS camp 93 were able to live in single or double rooms in the hospital, as opposed to barracks or outside housing.
  6. 6
    A far view of a stone like structure with a round tower like building on the left side of the image. The image was taken across an expanse of ground.
    A far view of a stone like structure with a round tower like building on the left side of the image. The image was taken across an expanse of ground.

    Utah State Hospital

    From March 1943 to April 1946 a CPS camp operated at the Utah State Hospital in Provo, Utah. 38 total COs worked at the camp over the course of its existence, performing a variety of jobs to make up for staffing shortages. Like other camps, the COs developed a religious community: they met weekly for Sunday school lessons, sang in choirs, and taught a summer Bible school. Some men also earned course credit at Brigham Young University.
  7. 7
    Black and white image of a Federal style structure in Virginia. The front has four large columns leading into arched windows and entryways.
    Black and white image of a Federal style structure in Virginia. The front has four large columns leading into arched windows and entryways.

    Western State Hospital Complex

    CPS camp 44, at what is now the Western State Hospital in Staunton, Virginia, had 110 workers from August 1942 to September 1946. The COs worked 76 hours per week, sleeping in the wards, eating low quality food, and combating rat infestation. Initially, patients disliked the COs, calling them “slackers” and “yellow-bellies.” Much of the anger, though, came from the mistreatment they faced from the normal attendants. The COs documented evidence of poor patient care and working conditions, sparking a community protest in 1943 that led to the superintendent’s resignation. Morale improved after changes to working hours and conditions. COs appointed a camp historian, held softball games, and organized lectures on many subjects.
  8. 8
    Wide angle view of a long three story brick building. In the forground is a circular driveway with low groundcover plants and a flagpole.
    Wide angle view of a long three story brick building. In the forground is a circular driveway with low groundcover plants and a flagpole.

    Fort Steilacoom

    From September 1942 to October 1945 Thirty-six COs worked at Ft. Steilacoom (now the Western State Hospital) CPS camp. Fifteen of them had previously worked at a CPS camp in Cascade Locks, Oregon. In addition to making a camp newsletter, the COs created the Pacifist Information Center, which hoped to better familiarize the public with the pacifist movement. They developed a library full of pacifist literature. While other COs struggled with poor living conditions and a lack of state support, the governor of Washington was fully supportive of the development of CPS camps in state facilities.

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